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<!DOCTYPE html>
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<title>Cornell Hyperloop — Research & News</title>
<meta name="description" content="Cornell Hyperloop research and news: 2025–26 papers on pod engineering, dynamics-aware maglev control, and an Amsterdam–Berlin hyperloop, plus our newsletter and announcement archive."/>
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<meta property="og:image:alt" content="CAD assembly of the 2025–26 Cornell Hyperloop pod on its I-beam track"/>
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<meta name="twitter:description" content="Research papers and news from Cornell Hyperloop."/>
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<span class="w-8 h-[1px] bg-primary block"></span>Research · 2025–26
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<h1 class="font-headline-xl text-headline-xl text-on-surface uppercase leading-none mb-6" style="font-size:clamp(2.25rem,8vw,4.5rem)">
Team<br/><span class="text-primary-container">Research</span>
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Three papers written by our team during the 2025–26 cycle: the engineering behind this year's pod, the control theory of keeping it levitated at speed, and the case for hyperloop on a real European corridor. Plus every newsletter and announcement from the team.
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<span class="fan-tag"><span><b>01</b> Design</span><span>10 pp</span></span>
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<p class="font-body-md text-body-md text-on-surface-variant max-w-2xl">Our research papers alongside every newsletter, flyer, and announcement, by academic year. Papers open their full write-up below; everything else opens full size.</p>
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<!-- ═════════════ 01 · Engineering Design ═════════════ -->
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<span class="font-label-caps text-label-caps text-primary tracking-[0.2em] uppercase">Engineering Design</span>
<span class="font-label-caps text-[10px] text-outline-variant tracking-widest">CH-EDD-26</span>
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<h2 class="font-headline-lg font-bold text-on-surface uppercase leading-tight" style="font-size:clamp(1.6rem,4vw,2.5rem)">Engineering Design Document</h2>
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<p class="font-body-lg text-body-lg text-on-surface mb-5">
The 2025–26 design cycle moved the pod away from heavy, off-the-shelf industrial hardware toward a custom-engineered, modular system that is lighter, smaller, and easier to build.
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<p class="font-body-md text-body-md text-on-surface-variant mb-10">
The document walks through all eight subsystems: a press-fit aluminum chassis, switchable magnetic and dual-sided pneumatic brakes, a parametrically optimized linear induction motor, custom levitation electromagnets, in-house power electronics, and a cloud-connected command-and-control stack.
</p>
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<div class="metric">
<span class="font-mono-stats font-bold text-on-surface block leading-none mb-2" style="font-size:clamp(2rem,4vw,2.75rem)">62<span class="text-primary-container">%</span></span>
<span class="font-label-caps text-[11px] text-on-surface-variant uppercase tracking-widest leading-snug block">Chassis mass reduction<br/><span class="text-on-surface-variant/60 normal-case tracking-normal font-body-md">65 lb steel to 25 lb aluminum</span></span>
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<span class="font-mono-stats font-bold text-on-surface block leading-none mb-2" style="font-size:clamp(2rem,4vw,2.75rem)">~120<span class="text-primary-container text-[0.55em] ml-1">N</span></span>
<span class="font-label-caps text-[11px] text-on-surface-variant uppercase tracking-widest leading-snug block">Simulated LIM thrust<br/><span class="text-on-surface-variant/60 normal-case tracking-normal font-body-md">Custom mini-LIM, ANSYS Maxwell</span></span>
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<span class="font-mono-stats font-bold text-on-surface block leading-none mb-2" style="font-size:clamp(2rem,4vw,2.75rem)"><30<span class="text-primary-container text-[0.55em] ml-1">min</span></span>
<span class="font-label-caps text-[11px] text-on-surface-variant uppercase tracking-widest leading-snug block">Chassis assembly<br/><span class="text-on-surface-variant/60 normal-case tracking-normal font-body-md">Two people and a rubber mallet</span></span>
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<span class="font-mono-stats font-bold text-on-surface block leading-none mb-2" style="font-size:clamp(2rem,4vw,2.75rem)">20<span class="text-primary-container">×</span></span>
<span class="font-label-caps text-[11px] text-on-surface-variant uppercase tracking-widest leading-snug block">Faster LIM simulations<br/><span class="text-on-surface-variant/60 normal-case tracking-normal font-body-md">5+ hours down to 15 minutes</span></span>
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<div><dt class="font-label-caps text-[10px] text-on-surface-variant/60 uppercase tracking-widest mb-1">Date</dt><dd class="text-on-surface">May 31, 2026</dd></div>
<div><dt class="font-label-caps text-[10px] text-on-surface-variant/60 uppercase tracking-widest mb-1">Length</dt><dd class="text-on-surface">10 pages</dd></div>
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<!-- Figure + subsystem index -->
<div class="mt-16 md:mt-20 reveal">
<figure class="group relative border border-outline-variant bg-[#e9ebf0] overflow-hidden">
<span class="absolute top-3 left-3 z-10 font-label-caps text-[10px] tracking-[0.2em] uppercase text-[#0c1324]/70">Fig. 01 — 2025–26 Pod Assembly</span>
<span class="hidden sm:block absolute top-3 right-3 z-10 font-label-caps text-[10px] tracking-widest text-[#0c1324]/50 group-hover:text-primary-container transition-colors">CAD-02</span>
<img src="res/research/pod-cad-2026.avif" alt="CAD assembly of the 2025–26 pod: a two-layer modular aluminum chassis carrying power electronics, motor drivers, and brake actuators above an I-beam track" width="1163" height="603" class="w-full h-auto block group-hover:scale-[1.02] transition-transform duration-700" loading="lazy" decoding="async"/>
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<div class="absolute bottom-0 left-0 w-0 h-[2px] bg-primary-container group-hover:w-full transition-all duration-500"></div>
</figure>
<figcaption class="mt-3 font-body-md text-sm text-on-surface-variant">The SQ5 chassis: 6.1 ft long and 16 in wide, split into a lower layer for EMI-producing power electronics and an upper layer for sensors and control.</figcaption>
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<div class="flex items-center gap-4 mb-6">
<span class="font-label-caps text-label-caps text-primary tracking-[0.2em] uppercase">Subsystems Covered</span>
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<a href="subteam-views/subteam-braking.html" class="sub-cell bg-surface-container p-6 flex flex-col gap-3 border border-transparent">
<div class="flex justify-between items-start"><span class="font-label-caps text-[10px] text-outline-variant tracking-widest">§1</span><svg class="sub-arrow w-4 h-4 text-on-surface-variant" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" aria-hidden="true"><path d="M7 17L17 7M9 7h8v8"/></svg></div>
<span class="font-headline-md font-semibold text-on-surface uppercase text-[17px] leading-tight">Magnetic Braking</span>
<span class="text-sm text-on-surface-variant leading-relaxed">Switchable eddy-current brake: rotating permanent-magnet disks toggle the field toward the track.</span>
<span class="mt-auto pt-2 font-label-caps text-xs text-primary tracking-wider">~2.7 KG ACTUATION PACKAGE</span>
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<a href="subteam-views/subteam-braking.html" class="sub-cell bg-surface-container p-6 flex flex-col gap-3 border border-transparent">
<div class="flex justify-between items-start"><span class="font-label-caps text-[10px] text-outline-variant tracking-widest">§2</span><svg class="sub-arrow w-4 h-4 text-on-surface-variant" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" aria-hidden="true"><path d="M7 17L17 7M9 7h8v8"/></svg></div>
<span class="font-headline-md font-semibold text-on-surface uppercase text-[17px] leading-tight">Frictional Braking</span>
<span class="text-sm text-on-surface-variant leading-relaxed">A pneumatic C-bracket that rides linear rails to clamp both faces of the I-beam flange.</span>
<span class="mt-auto pt-2 font-label-caps text-xs text-primary tracking-wider">DUAL-SIDED CLAMP</span>
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</a>
<a href="subteam-views/subteam-structures.html" class="sub-cell bg-surface-container p-6 flex flex-col gap-3 border border-transparent">
<div class="flex justify-between items-start"><span class="font-label-caps text-[10px] text-outline-variant tracking-widest">§3</span><svg class="sub-arrow w-4 h-4 text-on-surface-variant" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" aria-hidden="true"><path d="M7 17L17 7M9 7h8v8"/></svg></div>
<span class="font-headline-md font-semibold text-on-surface uppercase text-[17px] leading-tight">Aeroshell</span>
<span class="text-sm text-on-surface-variant leading-relaxed">Single-piece convex mold, checked as a thin-walled pressure vessel and in ANSYS flow simulation.</span>
<span class="mt-auto pt-2 font-label-caps text-xs text-primary tracking-wider">2.6 MPA PEAK HOOP STRESS</span>
<span class="sub-bar"></span>
</a>
<a href="subteam-views/subteam-structures.html" class="sub-cell bg-surface-container p-6 flex flex-col gap-3 border border-transparent">
<div class="flex justify-between items-start"><span class="font-label-caps text-[10px] text-outline-variant tracking-widest">§4</span><svg class="sub-arrow w-4 h-4 text-on-surface-variant" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" aria-hidden="true"><path d="M7 17L17 7M9 7h8v8"/></svg></div>
<span class="font-headline-md font-semibold text-on-surface uppercase text-[17px] leading-tight">Chassis</span>
<span class="text-sm text-on-surface-variant leading-relaxed">6063 aluminum tube with glass-fiber PA6 press-fit joints. Flat-packs for shipping, no welding.</span>
<span class="mt-auto pt-2 font-label-caps text-xs text-primary tracking-wider">25 LB · 6.1 FT</span>
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</a>
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<div class="flex justify-between items-start"><span class="font-label-caps text-[10px] text-outline-variant tracking-widest">§5</span><svg class="sub-arrow w-4 h-4 text-on-surface-variant" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" aria-hidden="true"><path d="M7 17L17 7M9 7h8v8"/></svg></div>
<span class="font-headline-md font-semibold text-on-surface uppercase text-[17px] leading-tight">Propulsion</span>
<span class="text-sm text-on-surface-variant leading-relaxed">Custom mini-LIM: 24 coils in three phases, 6 cm pole pitch, tuned through parametric sweeps.</span>
<span class="mt-auto pt-2 font-label-caps text-xs text-primary tracking-wider">~120 N SIMULATED THRUST</span>
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<span class="font-headline-md font-semibold text-on-surface uppercase text-[17px] leading-tight">Levitation</span>
<span class="text-sm text-on-surface-variant leading-relaxed">Cylindrical electromagnets on high-purity iron cores, wound by a custom dual-stepper rig.</span>
<span class="mt-auto pt-2 font-label-caps text-xs text-primary tracking-wider">~1,500 TURNS PER MAGNET</span>
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<div class="flex justify-between items-start"><span class="font-label-caps text-[10px] text-outline-variant tracking-widest">§7</span><svg class="sub-arrow w-4 h-4 text-on-surface-variant" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" aria-hidden="true"><path d="M7 17L17 7M9 7h8v8"/></svg></div>
<span class="font-headline-md font-semibold text-on-surface uppercase text-[17px] leading-tight">Power Systems</span>
<span class="text-sm text-on-surface-variant leading-relaxed">Modular Li-ion pack with BMS, a single-board emergency power-off, and a DRV8302 gate-driver inverter.</span>
<span class="mt-auto pt-2 font-label-caps text-xs text-primary tracking-wider">CUSTOM 3-PHASE INVERTER</span>
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<span class="font-headline-md font-semibold text-on-surface uppercase text-[17px] leading-tight">Command & Control</span>
<span class="text-sm text-on-surface-variant leading-relaxed">Raspberry Pi hubs to an AWS API to a live WebSocket GUI, with Cornell SSO and over-the-air flashing.</span>
<span class="mt-auto pt-2 font-label-caps text-xs text-primary tracking-wider">12 CONCURRENT HW SESSIONS</span>
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</article>
<!-- ═════════════ 02 · Levitation Control ═════════════ -->
<article id="levitation-control" class="paper relative bg-surface-container-low border-b border-outline-variant py-20 md:py-28 overflow-hidden">
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<span class="paper-num" aria-hidden="true">02</span>
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<span class="font-label-caps text-label-caps text-primary tracking-[0.2em] uppercase">Technical Aspects · Controls</span>
<span class="font-label-caps text-[10px] text-outline-variant tracking-widest">CH-TA-26</span>
</div>
<h2 class="font-headline-lg font-bold text-on-surface uppercase leading-tight" style="font-size:clamp(1.6rem,4vw,2.5rem)">Dynamics-Aware Control of Electromagnetic Levitation</h2>
<p class="font-body-md text-on-surface-variant mt-2 text-sm md:text-base">for Hyperloop Pods Under Motion, Track Irregularity, and Transient Loading</p>
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Maglev pods are usually sized with a static force balance: magnetic lift equals pod weight. This paper argues that is where levitation design starts, not where it ends.
</p>
<p class="font-body-md text-body-md text-on-surface-variant mb-10">
It builds a reduced-order model of a pod with front and rear levitation modules, coupling nonlinear magnetic force, finite coil-current dynamics, heave and pitch, speed-dependent track irregularity, eddy-current effects, and braking load transfer. Three controllers are then compared across the resulting operating envelope.
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<blockquote class="relative border-l-2 border-primary-container pl-6 py-1 mb-10">
<p class="font-headline-md text-on-surface leading-snug" style="font-size:clamp(1.15rem,2.2vw,1.5rem)">Static lift calculations can start the design, but they cannot finish it.</p>
<footer class="mt-3 font-label-caps text-[10px] text-on-surface-variant/60 uppercase tracking-[0.2em]">From the conclusion</footer>
</blockquote>
<ol class="space-y-px bg-outline-variant/40 border border-outline-variant/40">
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<span class="font-label-caps text-xs text-primary-container tracking-widest pt-1">R1</span>
<div><span class="font-label-caps text-label-caps text-on-surface uppercase block mb-1">Hover is a weak test</span><span class="text-sm text-on-surface-variant leading-relaxed">On a flat guideway, every controller meets the static lift condition and holds the design gap. The differences only appear in motion.</span></div>
</li>
<li class="bg-surface-container p-5 flex gap-5">
<span class="font-label-caps text-xs text-primary-container tracking-widest pt-1">R2</span>
<div><span class="font-label-caps text-label-caps text-on-surface uppercase block mb-1">Speed turns track error into frequency</span><span class="text-sm text-on-surface-variant leading-relaxed">A guideway error of wavelength <span class="math">λ</span> reaches the controller at <span class="math">f = v/λ</span>. At speed, the same bump pushes into the actuator's bandwidth.</span></div>
</li>
<li class="bg-surface-container p-5 flex gap-5">
<span class="font-label-caps text-xs text-primary-container tracking-widest pt-1">R3</span>
<div><span class="font-label-caps text-label-caps text-on-surface uppercase block mb-1">Braking over a defect is the critical case</span><span class="text-sm text-on-surface-variant leading-relaxed">Load transfer, pitch coupling, finite current response, and a local gap disturbance all arrive at once.</span></div>
</li>
<li class="bg-surface-container p-5 flex gap-5">
<span class="font-label-caps text-xs text-primary-container tracking-widest pt-1">R4</span>
<div><span class="font-label-caps text-label-caps text-on-surface uppercase block mb-1">The safe envelope is the metric</span><span class="text-sm text-on-surface-variant leading-relaxed">Static sizing sets the operating point. Closed-loop simulation sets the safe speed and disturbance envelope around it.</span></div>
</li>
</ol>
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<div><dt class="font-label-caps text-[10px] text-on-surface-variant/60 uppercase tracking-widest mb-1">Date</dt><dd class="text-on-surface">June 15, 2026</dd></div>
<div><dt class="font-label-caps text-[10px] text-on-surface-variant/60 uppercase tracking-widest mb-1">Length</dt><dd class="text-on-surface">19 pages · 7 refs</dd></div>
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<button type="button" class="cite-btn btn-icon text-on-surface-variant px-4 py-3 font-label-caps text-label-caps uppercase tracking-widest hover:text-primary transition-colors duration-200 flex items-center gap-2" data-cite='Cornell Hyperloop. "Dynamics-Aware Control of Electromagnetic Levitation for Hyperloop Pods Under Motion, Track Irregularity, and Transient Loading." Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, June 15, 2026.'>
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<span class="font-label-caps text-[11px] text-on-surface-variant border border-outline-variant px-3 py-1">Electromagnetic Suspension</span>
<span class="font-label-caps text-[11px] text-on-surface-variant border border-outline-variant px-3 py-1">Nonlinear Control</span>
<span class="font-label-caps text-[11px] text-on-surface-variant border border-outline-variant px-3 py-1">Vehicle Dynamics</span>
<span class="font-label-caps text-[11px] text-on-surface-variant border border-outline-variant px-3 py-1">Eddy-Current Damping</span>
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<!-- Controllers -->
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<span class="font-label-caps text-label-caps text-primary tracking-[0.2em] uppercase">Controllers Compared</span>
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<span class="absolute top-4 right-4 font-label-caps text-[10px] text-outline-variant group-hover:text-primary transition-colors">CTL-01</span>
<h3 class="font-headline-md font-semibold text-on-surface uppercase text-[18px] mb-3 pr-12">PID + Feedforward</h3>
<p class="text-sm text-on-surface-variant leading-relaxed">A static feedforward current from the nominal force balance, corrected by local gap feedback at each module. Simple to validate and adequate near the operating point.</p>
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<h3 class="font-headline-md font-semibold text-on-surface uppercase text-[18px] mb-3 pr-12">Coordinated Body Feedback</h3>
<p class="text-sm text-on-surface-variant leading-relaxed">State feedback on heave and pitch together, so front and rear modules act as one body. Gains can be scheduled across speed, acceleration, and payload.</p>
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<span class="absolute top-4 right-4 font-label-caps text-[10px] text-outline-variant group-hover:text-primary transition-colors">CTL-03</span>
<h3 class="font-headline-md font-semibold text-on-surface uppercase text-[18px] mb-3 pr-12">Constrained Nonlinear</h3>
<p class="text-sm text-on-surface-variant leading-relaxed">Regulates the instantaneous gaps, allocates feasible module forces, and adds a soft clearance barrier near the hard gap. It earns its complexity once actuator limits become active.</p>
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</article>
<!-- ═════════════ 03 · Socio-Economics ═════════════ -->
<article id="socio-economics" class="paper relative bg-surface border-b border-outline-variant py-20 md:py-28 overflow-hidden">
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<span class="paper-num" aria-hidden="true">03</span>
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<div class="flex flex-wrap items-center gap-x-4 gap-y-2 mb-3">
<span class="font-label-caps text-label-caps text-primary tracking-[0.2em] uppercase">Socio-Economic Aspects</span>
<span class="font-label-caps text-[10px] text-outline-variant tracking-widest">CH-SE-26</span>
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<h2 class="font-headline-lg font-bold text-on-surface uppercase leading-tight" style="font-size:clamp(1.6rem,4vw,2.5rem)">Hyperloop on the Amsterdam–Berlin Corridor</h2>
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Can hyperloop outperform rail and aviation on a real, high-demand European route? This study tests the question on the ~575 km Amsterdam–Berlin corridor.
</p>
<p class="font-body-md text-body-md text-on-surface-variant mb-10">
It combines a three-phase kinematic travel-time model, a comparative lifecycle-emissions assessment across hyperloop, rail, and aviation, and EU infrastructure cost benchmarks, then examines the conditions under which hyperloop could meaningfully help decarbonize intercity travel.
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<span class="font-mono-stats font-bold text-on-surface block leading-none mb-2" style="font-size:clamp(2rem,4vw,2.75rem)">~50<span class="text-primary-container text-[0.55em] ml-1">min</span></span>
<span class="font-label-caps text-[11px] text-on-surface-variant uppercase tracking-widest leading-snug block">In-tube travel time<br/><span class="text-on-surface-variant/60 normal-case tracking-normal font-body-md">At 700 km/h with 0.5 g acceleration</span></span>
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<div class="metric">
<span class="font-mono-stats font-bold text-on-surface block leading-none mb-2" style="font-size:clamp(2rem,4vw,2.75rem)">90–95<span class="text-primary-container">%</span></span>
<span class="font-label-caps text-[11px] text-on-surface-variant uppercase tracking-widest leading-snug block">Lower emissions than flying<br/><span class="text-on-surface-variant/60 normal-case tracking-normal font-body-md">Lifecycle, per passenger</span></span>
</div>
<div class="metric">
<span class="font-mono-stats font-bold text-on-surface block leading-none mb-2" style="font-size:clamp(2rem,4vw,2.75rem)">60–80<span class="text-primary-container">%</span></span>
<span class="font-label-caps text-[11px] text-on-surface-variant uppercase tracking-widest leading-snug block">Lower than intercity rail<br/><span class="text-on-surface-variant/60 normal-case tracking-normal font-body-md">Same corridor, same functional unit</span></span>
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<span class="font-mono-stats font-bold text-on-surface block leading-none mb-2" style="font-size:clamp(2rem,4vw,2.75rem)">17–24<span class="text-primary-container text-[0.55em] ml-1">B</span></span>
<span class="font-label-caps text-[11px] text-on-surface-variant uppercase tracking-widest leading-snug block">Infrastructure, EUR<br/><span class="text-on-surface-variant/60 normal-case tracking-normal font-body-md">Mixed elevated and tunneled build</span></span>
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<div><dt class="font-label-caps text-[10px] text-on-surface-variant/60 uppercase tracking-widest mb-1">Date</dt><dd class="text-on-surface">2026</dd></div>
<div><dt class="font-label-caps text-[10px] text-on-surface-variant/60 uppercase tracking-widest mb-1">Length</dt><dd class="text-on-surface">19 pages</dd></div>
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<span class="font-label-caps text-[11px] text-on-surface-variant border border-outline-variant px-3 py-1">Lifecycle Assessment</span>
<span class="font-label-caps text-[11px] text-on-surface-variant border border-outline-variant px-3 py-1">Infrastructure Cost</span>
<span class="font-label-caps text-[11px] text-on-surface-variant border border-outline-variant px-3 py-1">EU Green Deal</span>
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<!-- Route + charts -->
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<span class="absolute top-3 left-4 font-label-caps text-[10px] tracking-[0.2em] uppercase text-primary">Fig. 03 — Corridor Comparison</span>
<span class="hidden sm:block absolute top-3 right-4 font-label-caps text-[10px] tracking-widest text-outline-variant">AMS-BER</span>
<div class="flex items-center gap-4 md:gap-6 mt-6" aria-label="Amsterdam to Berlin, about 575 kilometers">
<div class="flex flex-col items-start shrink-0">
<span class="font-headline-md font-semibold text-on-surface uppercase text-[15px] md:text-[20px]">Amsterdam</span>
<span class="font-label-caps text-[10px] text-on-surface-variant/60 tracking-widest">AMS · NL</span>
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<div class="relative flex-1 h-10" aria-hidden="true">
<span class="absolute left-0 right-0 top-1/2 h-px bg-outline-variant"></span>
<span class="absolute left-0 top-1/2 w-2.5 h-2.5 -mt-[5px] rounded-full bg-on-surface"></span>
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<span class="absolute left-1/2 -translate-x-1/2 -top-2 whitespace-nowrap font-label-caps text-[11px] text-on-surface-variant tracking-[0.2em] bg-surface-container-low px-3">~575 KM</span>
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<div class="flex flex-col items-end shrink-0">
<span class="font-headline-md font-semibold text-on-surface uppercase text-[15px] md:text-[20px]">Berlin</span>
<span class="font-label-caps text-[10px] text-on-surface-variant/60 tracking-widest">BER · DE</span>
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</div>
</div>
<div class="relative grid grid-cols-1 lg:grid-cols-2">
<!-- Journey time -->
<div class="rc-chart p-6 md:p-10 lg:border-r border-b lg:border-b-0 border-outline-variant" data-max="8">
<h3 class="font-label-caps text-label-caps text-on-surface uppercase tracking-widest mb-1">Journey time</h3>
<p class="text-xs text-on-surface-variant mb-6">Hours, one way. Bars show the reported range.</p>
<div class="rc-rows">
<div class="rc-row" tabindex="0" data-lo="4.5" data-hi="5" data-note="Includes check-in, security, boarding, and city transfer.">
<span class="text-sm text-on-surface-variant">Aviation</span>
<div class="rc-track"><span class="rc-bar"></span><span class="rc-val">4.5–5 h</span></div>
</div>
<div class="rc-row" tabindex="0" data-lo="6" data-hi="6" data-note="ICE (Deutsche Bahn). City centre to city centre, 1–2 changes.">
<span class="text-sm text-on-surface-variant">Intercity rail</span>
<div class="rc-track"><span class="rc-bar"></span><span class="rc-val">~6 h</span></div>
</div>
<div class="rc-row" tabindex="0" data-lo="7" data-hi="8" data-note="GoVolta budget rail. Direct, 160 km/h maximum.">
<span class="text-sm text-on-surface-variant">Budget rail</span>
<div class="rc-track"><span class="rc-bar"></span><span class="rc-val">7–8 h</span></div>
</div>
<div class="rc-row is-hl" tabindex="0" data-lo="0.9" data-hi="1.1667" data-note="Kinematic model at 700 km/h and 0.5 g, with an 8-minute error band and station dwell.">
<span class="text-sm text-on-surface">Hyperloop · 700 km/h</span>
<div class="rc-track"><span class="rc-bar"></span><span class="rc-val">54–70 min</span></div>
</div>
<div class="rc-row is-hl" tabindex="0" data-lo="0.5667" data-hi="0.8333" data-note="Upper-bound kinematic model at 1,200 km/h and 0.5 g, with an 8-minute error band.">
<span class="text-sm text-on-surface">Hyperloop · 1,200 km/h</span>
<div class="rc-track"><span class="rc-bar"></span><span class="rc-val">34–50 min</span></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="rc-axis mt-2" data-ticks="0,2,4,6,8" data-unit=" h"></div>
</div>
<!-- Emissions -->
<div class="rc-chart p-6 md:p-10" data-max="150">
<h3 class="font-label-caps text-label-caps text-on-surface uppercase tracking-widest mb-1">CO<sub>2</sub> per passenger</h3>
<p class="text-xs text-on-surface-variant mb-6">Kilograms, one way across 575 km.</p>
<div class="rc-rows">
<div class="rc-row" tabindex="0" data-lo="88" data-hi="147" data-note="153–255 g/pkm for short-haul flights. The upper value includes radiative forcing.">
<span class="text-sm text-on-surface-variant">Aviation</span>
<div class="rc-track"><span class="rc-bar"></span><span class="rc-val">88–147 kg</span></div>
</div>
<div class="rc-row" tabindex="0" data-lo="17" data-hi="24" data-note="30–41 g/pkm, in line with long-distance ICE services.">
<span class="text-sm text-on-surface-variant">Intercity rail</span>
<div class="rc-track"><span class="rc-bar"></span><span class="rc-val">17–24 kg</span></div>
</div>
<div class="rc-row is-hl" tabindex="0" data-lo="3.5" data-hi="8" data-note="6–14 g/pkm on today's blended Dutch-German grid (250–310 g/kWh) at 70–80% occupancy.">
<span class="text-sm text-on-surface">Hyperloop · today's grid</span>
<div class="rc-track"><span class="rc-bar"></span><span class="rc-val">3.5–8 kg</span></div>
</div>
<div class="rc-row is-hl" tabindex="0" data-lo="1.7" data-hi="4.6" data-note="3–8 g/pkm on the projected 2035 grid (100–150 g/kWh).">
<span class="text-sm text-on-surface">Hyperloop · 2035 grid</span>
<div class="rc-track"><span class="rc-bar"></span><span class="rc-val">1.7–4.6 kg</span></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="rc-axis mt-2" data-ticks="0,50,100,150" data-unit=" kg"></div>
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<div class="rc-tip" role="tooltip" aria-hidden="true"><span class="rc-tip-text block text-xs text-on-surface leading-relaxed"></span></div>
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<p class="relative px-6 md:px-10 py-4 border-t border-outline-variant text-[11px] text-on-surface-variant/60 leading-relaxed">Source: figures as reported in the paper, drawing on Beckert et al. (2024), Ember (2024), and Ramboll et al. (2025). Hover or focus a row for its basis.</p>
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<span class="absolute top-4 right-4 font-label-caps text-[10px] text-outline-variant group-hover:text-primary transition-colors">TIME</span>
<h3 class="font-headline-md font-semibold text-on-surface uppercase text-[18px] mb-3 pr-12">A same-day round trip</h3>
<p class="text-sm text-on-surface-variant leading-relaxed">Sub-hour travel holds even at a gentler 0.3 g, which adds only 1.7 minutes. The real threat is terminal time: security and boarding have to stay within 10–15 minutes.</p>
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<h3 class="font-headline-md font-semibold text-on-surface uppercase text-[18px] mb-3 pr-12">Cleaner as the grid gets cleaner</h3>
<p class="text-sm text-on-surface-variant leading-relaxed">Hyperloop already beats aviation on today's grid. Germany's energy policy and early occupancy (below ~50%, per-passenger emissions climb fast) are the swing variables.</p>
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<span class="absolute top-4 right-4 font-label-caps text-[10px] text-outline-variant group-hover:text-primary transition-colors">COST</span>
<h3 class="font-headline-md font-semibold text-on-surface uppercase text-[18px] mb-3 pr-12">Tunnels drive the budget</h3>
<p class="text-sm text-on-surface-variant leading-relaxed">Elevated track over flat terrain runs EUR 25–35M per km. The 40–60 km of urban tunnels add EUR 2.8–4.2B, with ~EUR 45M a year in maintenance.</p>
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tip.style.top = (bar.bottom - host.top + 10) + 'px';
}
function hideTip(){ if (tip) tip.classList.remove('show'); }
document.querySelectorAll('.rc-row').forEach(function(row){
row.addEventListener('mouseenter', function(){ showTip(row); });
row.addEventListener('mouseleave', hideTip);
row.addEventListener('focus', function(){ showTip(row); });
row.addEventListener('blur', hideTip);
});
// --- Index filter: by type; years with nothing left are hidden ---
var pills = document.querySelectorAll('.pill');
var newsGroups = document.querySelectorAll('.news-group');
pills.forEach(function(pill){
pill.addEventListener('click', function(){
var filter = pill.dataset.filter;
pills.forEach(function(p){ p.setAttribute('aria-pressed', String(p === pill)); });
newsGroups.forEach(function(group){
var any = false;
group.querySelectorAll('.news-card').forEach(function(card){
var show = filter === 'all' || card.dataset.type === filter;
card.hidden = !show;
if (show) any = true;
});
group.hidden = !any;
if (any) group.classList.add('is-in');
});
});
});
// --- News archive: full-size viewer (steps through the items currently shown) ---
var viewer = document.getElementById('viewer');
var newsCards = document.querySelectorAll('.news-card:not(.is-paper)');
if (viewer && typeof viewer.showModal === 'function') {
var vImg = document.getElementById('viewer-img');
var vTag = document.getElementById('viewer-tag');
var vTitle = document.getElementById('viewer-title');
var vDesc = document.getElementById('viewer-desc');
var vOpen = document.getElementById('viewer-open');
var vCount = document.getElementById('viewer-count');
var vPrev = viewer.querySelector('.viewer-prev');
var vNext = viewer.querySelector('.viewer-next');
var vClose = viewer.querySelector('.viewer-close');
var shown = [], current = 0, opener = null;
var pad = function(n){ return (n < 10 ? '0' : '') + n; };
function render(){
var card = shown[current];
vImg.src = card.dataset.full;
vImg.alt = card.dataset.title;